the closing of the frontier frederick jackson turner

(1993), Brett Bowden "FrontiersOld, New, and Final,", Nora Berend, Medievalists and the Notion of the Frontier., Riley, Glenda. 0000099528 00000 n He also pushed through the annexation of the Midway Islands in the Pacific Ocean, which subsequently opened a more stable route to Asian markets. Following decades of an official stance of isolationism combined with relatively weak presidents who lacked the popular mandate or congressional support to undertake substantial overseas commitments, a new cadre of American leaders-many of whom were too young to fully comprehend the damage inflicted by the Civil War-assumed leadership roles. [16], Successive generations moved further inland, shifting the lines of settlement and wilderness, but preserving the essential tension between the two. The Turner Thesis was also critiqued by Patricia Nelson Limerick in her 1987 book, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West. The English Empire, 16601763, Chapter 5: Imperial Reforms and Colonial Protests, 1763-1774, Chapter 6: America's War for Independence, 1775-1783, Chapter 7: Creating Republican Governments, 17761790, Chapter 8: Growing Pains: The New Republic, 17901820, Chapter 9: Industrial Transformation in the North, 18001850, Chapter 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 18201840, Chapter 11: A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 18001860, Chapter 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 18001860, Chapter 13: Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 18201860, Chapter 14: Troubled Times: the Tumultuous 1850s, Chapter 16: The Era of Reconstruction,1865-1877, Chapter 17: Go West Young Man! [12], Turner and Roosevelt diverged on the exact aspect of frontier life that shaped the contemporary American. Every generation moved further west and became more American, more democratic, and more intolerant of hierarchy. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. He cites British attempts to stifle western emigration during the colonial era and as an example of eastern control. Free shipping for many products! Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). "[29] Historians adopted it, especially in studies of the west,[30] but also in other areas, such as the influential work of Alfred D. Chandler Jr. (19182007) in business history. 0000056277 00000 n By 1898, on the eve of the Spanish-American War, American exports had reached a height of $1.3 billion annually. The Dilemma of the West, African Americans in the Antebellum United States, The Filibuster and the Quest for New Slave States, An Awakening of Religion and Individualism, The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Republican Party, The Dred Scott Decision and Sectional Strife, The Origins and Outbreak of the Civil War, Congress and the Remaking of the South, 1865-1866, The Loss of American Indian Life and Culture, The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens, Building Industrial America on the Backs of Labor, The African American Great Migration and New European Immigration, Political Corruption in Postbellum America, The Key Political Issues: Patronage, Tariffs, and Gold, The Origins of the Progressive Spirit in America, New Voices for Women and African Americans, The Spanish-American War and Overseas Empire, American Isolationism and the European Origins of War, Demobilization and Its Difficult Aftermath, Prosperity and the Production of Popular Entertainment, Republican Ascendancy: Politics in the 1920s, Assessing the Hoover Years on the Eve of the New Deal, The Origins of War: Europe, Asia, and the United States, The African American Struggle for Civil Rights, Jimmy Carter in the Aftermath of the Storm, Chapter 22: Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy, 1890-1914. rF"e7I(xE\Z9Ni,S!`$='*f82bS8}UdK2n+IIdFkhZoll-: For a scholar of such wide influence, Turner wrote relatively few books. 0000122616 00000 n Turner begins the essay by calling to attention the fact that the western frontier line, which had defined the entirety of American history up to the 1880s, had ended. In 1899, in an effort to mitigate other foreign interests and still protect their own, the United States joined Great Britain and Germany in a three-party protectorate over the islands, which assured American access to the strategic ports located there. WebFind many great new & used options and get the best deals for MARY AUSTIN AND THE AMERICAN WEST By Susan Goodman & Carl Dawson - Hardcover NEW at the best online prices at eBay! history. 0000002336 00000 n [10], A similarly race-based interpretation of Western history also occupied the intellectual sphere in the United States before Turner. In addition, the fleet now included six battleships, compared to zero in the previous decade. Turner sets up the East and the West as opposing forces; as the West strives for freedom, the East seeks to control it. His writing, too, bore the stamp of oratory; indeed, he reworked his lectures into articles that appeared in the nations most influential popular and scholarly journals. Lotties combination of moral certainty and selfless service was emblematic of the missionary zeal of the early American empire. statement marks the closing of a great historic movement. Web11 William Coleman, "Science and Symbol in the Turner Frontier Hypothesis," American Historical Review, LXXII (October 1966), 23. Moving westward, the frontier became more and more American. The Sierra Club, the Audubon Society, and the National Park System were established to counter the demise of the frontier. 10, Allan G. Bogue, "Frederick Jackson Turner Reconsidered,", William Coleman, "Science and Symbol in the Turner Frontier Hypothesis,". The frontier line, which separates civilization from wilderness, is the most rapid and effective Americanization on the continent; it takes the European from across the Atlantic and shapes him into something new. 0000002314 00000 n Arthur Unobskey Professor of American History, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticutt. [2], Australian historian Brett Bowden has explored how the concept of "frontier" has been very widely used in both the scholarly and the popular literature to denote challenging new forces. WebExplains frederick jackson turner's claim that the frontier made the united states unique. bonds of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new institutions and WebIn 1890, the U.S. Census revealed that the frontier (defined as fewer than two people per square mile) was closed. This is the frontierthe Americawe have set ourselves to reclaim. "[22], Historians, geographers, and social scientists have studied frontier-like conditions in other countries, with an eye on the Turnerian model. States." Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Instead Fermilab's planners sought to return to Turnerian themes. He argued that the tide of intelligence had always moved from east to west. Lottie remained in China through famines, the Boxer Rebellion, and other hardships. Milton Stanley Livingston, the lab's associate director, said in 1968, "The frontier of high energy and the infinitesimally small is a challenge to the mind of man. In 1942, in "The Frontier and American Institutions: A Criticism of the Turner Thesis," Professor George Wilson Pierson debated the validity of the Turner thesis, stating that many factors influenced American culture besides the looming frontier. Turner held that the American character was decisively shaped by conditions on the frontier, in particular the abundance of free land, the settling of which engendered such traits as self-reliance, individualism, inventiveness, restless energy, mobility, materialism, and optimism. by . t!p/G>Q]y wh4R}b]Z,SqCES7J.2U|?}=8lD7{A+[/SW7i|9vtB3X[gY.~0u83cRuq[v5^>Vq6Vwt1gcY vy_>rs&^*s[&=u{{ >0cGL%i&yb|&zb2tVVVAQ4fY)6^;bb/" 0i 1n eplg\tCKGHAXb-s1Z4&34z 'q9q!$`>HNq|HB. Ax4HR&6DH&A)E@o It has become familiar to millions through a diverse publishing program that includes scholarly works in all academic disciplines, bibles, music, school and college textbooks, business books, dictionaries and reference books, and academic journals. The process of westward expansion had transformed a desolate and savage It currently publishes more than 6,000 new publications a year, has offices in around fifty countries, and employs more than 5,500 people worldwide. Wilderness Environ Med. -- Land policies and the Georgia Law of December 19, 1829. Second, he suggested establishing a network of naval bases to fuel this expanding fleet. democracy and individualism and had, therefore, shaped not just the West but the Closing the Frontier: Radical Response in Oklahoma, 1889-1923 Hardcover January 1, 1986 . Later Turner (Figure 22.4) and naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan were instrumental in the countrys move toward foreign expansion, and writer Brooks Adams further dramatized the consequences of the nations loss of its frontier in his The Law of Civilization and Decay in 1895. scholarship can best be traced to the famous paper Frederick Jackson Turner The Significance of the Frontier in American History. Essay. Chester A. Arthur on American Indian Policy (1881) The concerns raised by the economic depression of the early 1890s further convinced business owners that they needed to tap into new markets, even at the risk of foreign entanglements. activities, that, and more, the ever retreating frontier has been to the United By trying to help people in less industrialized countries achieve a higher standard of living and a better understanding of the principles of democracy, reformers hoped to contribute to a noble cause, but their approach suffered from the same paternalism that hampered Progressive reforms at home. Nevertheless, he made it clear that his historical writing was shaped by a contemporary agenda. A small herd of American bison was started at the lab's founding to symbolize Fermilab's presence on the frontier of physics and its connection to the American prairie. "[45] Mathiopoulos notes that he "cultivated this resurrection of frontier ideology as a motto of progress ('getting America moving') throughout his term of office. He was an early leader of the American Historical Association, serving as its president in 1910 and on the editorial board of the associations American Historical Review from 1910 to 1915. WebIt was the vast frontier stretching out to the west of the developed land on the North American continent that shaped the American characterand the course of US history. Thus the advance of the frontier has meant a steady Many were influenced by recent scholarship on race-based intelligence and embraced the implications of social Darwinist theory that alleged inferior races were destined to poverty on account of their lower evolutionary status. As the century came to a close, however, a variety of factors, from the closing of the American frontier to the countrys increased industrial production, led the United States to look beyond its borders. 0000090387 00000 n 0000102444 00000 n "[47] The frontier metaphor thus maintained its rhetorical ties to American social progress. 0000090328 00000 n Future acquisitions in the Pacific and Caribbean increased this naval supply network (Figure 22.5). He pursued these goals through a variety of actions. It was He stressed the process of "winning a wilderness" to extend the frontier line further for U.S. colonization, and the impact this had on pioneer culture and character. Thus the advance of the frontier has meant a steady [42], Despite Pierson and other scholars work, Turners influence did not end during World War II or even after the war. Imperialism and Progressivism were compatible in the minds of many reformers who thought the Progressive impulses for democracy at home translated overseas as well. Though Roosevelt would later accept Turners historiography on the West, calling Turners work a correction or supplementation of his own, the two certainly contradict. 2 Ibid., 2. Corrections? Updates? Frederick Jackson Turner's argument that American democracy was built by the American frontier, Saldaa-Portillo, Mara Josefina "Indian Given: Racial Geographies across Mexico and the United States," (2016) pp. @T @P@ABD"RT ZQ-GhuAhRZ7~VQ[wgvfwv 02I-F $Nd |Okc{Y c ]}&DqZ +@xp} 6!Q&zgA0uly3b7lG Pg9XCf~YhO 95YGN1A wSO BOnK`sB'\nMl~ t67Mc\4fC: _R*` XiS>k:ri9S9 .qV0]l9|)=zqE6v)+ f32\ -46q$LBsx0K)Pi3B,_8`iPM-qgtGb~TLVJd(iE4G/ = trailer << /Size 371 /Info 316 0 R /Root 320 0 R /Prev 990075 /ID[<72a791510c44fbfc687e8adeb5826df1>] >> startxref 0 %%EOF 320 0 obj << /Type /Catalog /Pages 317 0 R /Metadata 318 0 R /OpenAction [ 322 0 R /XYZ null null null ] /PageMode /UseNone /StructTreeRoot 321 0 R /PieceInfo << /MarkedPDF << /LastModified (D:20051018094202)>> >> /LastModified (D:20051018094202) /MarkInfo << /Marked true /LetterspaceFlags 0 >> >> endobj 321 0 obj << /Type /StructTreeRoot /RoleMap 52 0 R /ClassMap 55 0 R /K 244 0 R /ParentTree 270 0 R /ParentTreeNextKey 9 >> endobj 369 0 obj << /S 296 /C 444 /Filter /FlateDecode /Length 370 0 R >> stream ", Faragher, John Mack. . \>ctTUQuw:twiGWmKI2rrvvc1%tg+f}q6)4%lN. Imports over the same period also increased substantially, from $238 million in 1865 to $616 million in 1898. Yen, "Western Frontier or Feudal Society: Metaphors and Perceptions of Cyberspace,", E. Brent, "Electronic communication and sociology: Looking backward, thinking ahead, careening toward the next millennium,", The Significance of the Frontier in American History, the challenges to democracy in the late 1890s, "Wisconsin School" of diplomatic historians, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History", "Nostalgia and Progress: Theodore Roosevelt's Myth of the Frontier", "How the Myth of the American Frontier Got Its Start", "The Census of 1890 and the Closing of the Frontier", "Frontier Culture: The Roots and Persistence of "Rugged Individualism" in the United States", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frontier_thesis&oldid=1131966330, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Coleman, William, "Science and Symbol in the Turner Frontier Hypothesis,". Walker D. Wyman and Clifton B. Kroeber, eds. European characteristics fell by the wayside and the old country's institutions (e.g., established churches, established aristocracies, standing armies, intrusive government, and highly unequal land distribution) were increasingly out of place. entitled "The Significance of the Frontier in American History." 0000121472 00000 n Born in frontier Wisconsin and educated at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, Turner did graduate work at Johns Hopkins University under Herbert Baxter Adams. Up to our own day American history has been in a large "Turner and the frontier myth. Turners thesis was enormously influential at the time but has subsequently been widely criticized by historians. [31], Many believed that the end of the frontier represented the beginning of a new stage in American life and that the United States must expand overseas. Limerick pushes for a continuation of study within the historical and social atmosphere of the American West, which she believes did not end in 1890, but rather continues on to this very day. Western expansion and the goal of Manifest Destiny still held the countrys attention, and American missionaries proselytized as far abroad as China, India, the Korean Peninsula, and Africa, but reconstruction efforts took up most of the nations resources. ", Hofstadter, Richard. Religious institutions from the eastern seaboard, in particular, battled for possession of the West. WebIn 1893, Frederick Jackson Turner presented his thesis, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" at Columbian Exposition in Chicago. When Queen Liliuokalani tapped into a strong anti-American resentment among native Hawaiians over the economic and political power of exploitative American sugar companies between 1891 and 1893, worried businessmen worked with the American minister to Hawaii, John Stevens, to stage a quick, armed revolt to counter her efforts and seize the islands as an American protectorate (Figure 22.6). Turner referred to the Germanic germ theory by name in his essay, claiming that too exclusive attention has been paid by institutional students to the Germanic origins.[9] Turner believed that historians should focus on the settlers struggle with the frontier as the catalyst for the creation of American character, not racial or hereditary traits. "On Modernizing Frederick Jackson Turner,", This page was last edited on 6 January 2023, at 16:57. Whether reformers and missionaries worked with native communities in the borderlands such as New Mexico; in the inner cities, like the Salvation Army; or overseas, their approaches had much in common. Limerick asserts the notion of a "New Western History" in which the American West is treated as a place and not a process of finite expansion. 0000003351 00000 n [17], Turner saw the land frontier was ending, since the U.S. Census of 1890 had officially stated that the American frontier had broken up. As a new industrial United States began to emerge in the 1870s, economic interests began to lead the country toward a more expansionist foreign policy. Secretary of State William Seward, who held that position from 1861 through 1869, sought to extend American political and commercial influence in both Asia and Latin America. Settling Several Protestant faiths formed missionary societies in the years after the Civil War, seeking to expand their reach, particularly in Asia. Most notably, in 1867, Seward obtained the Alaskan Territory from Russia for a purchase price of $7.2 million. Only if gold were to be found, the editors decried, would the secretive purchase be justified. WebThe West of the War of 1812, the West of Clay, and Benton and Harrison, and Andrew Jackson, shut off by the Middle States and the mountains from the coast sections, had a solidarity of its own with national tendencies. U.S. History by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. In Australia, "mateship" and working together was valued more than individualism. thesis" or "frontier thesis," as his argument quickly became known, shaped both DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2023.04.008. The follow-up to that study, The United States, 18301850: The Nation and Its Sections (1935), would not be published until after his death. His Rise of the New West, 18191829 (1906) was published as a volume in The American Nation series, which included contributions from the nations leading historians. John Perry Barlow, along with Mitch Kapor, promoted the idea of cyberspace (the realm of telecommunication) as an "electronic frontier" beyond the borders of any physically based government, in which freedom and self-determination could be fully realized. "Frederick Jackson Turner Overlooked the Ladies. To Roosevelt, the journey westward was one of nonstop encounters with the hostile races and cultures of the New World, forcing the early colonists to defend themselves as they pressed forward. To read this article in full you will need to make a payment. This was particularly true among women missionaries, who composed over 60 percent of the overall missionary force. The Census of 1890 and the Closing of the Frontier. [40] This quote from Turners The Frontier in American History is arguably the most famous statement of his work and, to later historians, the most controversial: American democracy was born of no theorist's dream; it was not carried in the Susan Constant to Virginia, nor in the Mayflower to Plymouth. 0000117724 00000 n WebGalena, South Dakota, in the Black Hills, 1890 frontier of the seventeenth century; the Alleghanies that of the eighteenth; the Mississippi that of the first quarter of the ", Bazzi, Samuel, Martin Fiszbein, and Mesay Gebresilasse. Whereas in his 1893 essay he celebrated the pioneers for the spirit of individualism that spurred migration westward, 25 years later Turner castigated these slashers of the forest, these self-sufficing pioneers, raising the corn and livestock for their own need, living scattered and apart. For Turner the national problem was no longer how to cut and burn away the vast screen of the dense and daunting forest but how to save and wisely use the remaining timber. At the end of his career, he stressed the vital role that regionalism would play in counteracting the atomization brought about by the frontier experience. The essay had a major impact on historiography for decades, with serious criticism emerging in the 1940s. He also commented directly on the connections he saw between the past and the present. Social reformers of the early Progressive Era also performed work abroad that mirrored the missionaries. Evidently, the belief that free political institutions of the United States spawned in ancient Germanic forests endured well into the 1940s. "Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner": Hine, Robert V. and John Mack Faragher. According to Turner, American progress has repeatedly undergone a cyclical process on the frontier line as society has needed to redevelop with its movement westward.
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